The Influence of Paternal Relationships on the Development of Athletic Male Offspring more

THE INFLUENCE OF PATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETIC MALE OFFSPRING by John Girdwood Michigan State University Department of Sociology Word count: 5019 Michigan State University • Department of Sociology 316 Berkey Hall Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1111 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 December 15, 2009 2 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 ABSTRACT Extending the Essential Father Theory, this proposal seeks to conduct research that will provide explanations of outcomes when levels of influence that fathers contribute to the development of their sons vary. This examination of successful outcomes will advance sociological research in regard to both occupation and health. I hypothesize that fathers are essential to positive child development by helping (a) set status attainment goals from ages 8 - 12 years; and (b) provide achievement motivation from ages 13 - 17 years. In addition to those developmental periods, I will look closely at the influence that fathers' socioeconomic backgrounds play throughout both periods. I will conduct interviews with sons who either are professional athletes, former professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming professional athletes. I will also perform media content analysis of athletes' descriptions of fatherly influence when the subject matter is similarly related to that of the research interview questions. Combining both methods, I can propose better understanding of paternal influence on the development of athletic children. December 15, 2009 3 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 THE INFLUENCE OF PATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETIC MALE OFFSPRING RESEARCH PROBLEM When analyzing life choices of the American male, it is imperative to look at adolescence as a crucial period of decision-making. The transition to adulthood represents an important area of sociological research in part because it constitutes a critical time in the formation of life pathways (Johnson 2002). Once it is agreed upon that adolescence is a formative period then elements of the decision-making process can begin to be examined. In this proposal, I assume that positive outcomes occur when goals are set and subsequently attained. Fathers, participatory or not, contribute varying levels of influence on the formation and attainment of the goals of their sons. These ambitions take many forms: scholastic, professional, athletic, etc. This research will examine a blended ambition, one that pairs occupational and healthy objectives, the development of athletic children. BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES Positive and negative outcomes, usually critiqued by others, tend to be defined by those who are outside the father/son relationship. Whether a father produced a successful son can be judged by friends, relatives, and on some occasion the news media. However, the most appropriate judges of relationship quality are those who participate in the relationships. The essential father theory simply states that fathers are essential to December 15, 2009 4 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 positive child development (Silverstein and Auerbach 1999). Positive child development is different from reaching general lofty financial positions, educational distinction, or having great life-course gains in wealth and socioeconomic status. For purposes of this research, I define "positive child development" as parent/child goal setting and accomplishment of those goals, particularly occupational goals. I will explain later in the article how status attainment goals are formed between ages 8 - 12 years and then achievement motivation occurs during the teen years. The father's socioeconomic background frequently has been found to have long-term effects on adult intellectual, occupational, and economic outcomes (Scarr and Weinberg 1978). Sociologists frequently study changes across cohorts in the consequences of family socioeconomic background, gender, education, and cognitive ability for occupational outcomes. Other studies focus on how the consequences of these variables change within the course of individuals' lives (Warren, Sheridan, and Hauser 2002). I expect to find that status attainment goals initiated between ages 8 - 12 years consequentially have an effect on achievement motivation during ages 13 - 17 years. Structural models of educational attainment specify how differences in family socioeconomic background are translated into varying educational attainment, with family socioeconomic background having both direct and indirect effects on schooling (Teachman 1987). Thought has also been given to the motivations of vocational choices. Given that work values are important December 15, 2009 5 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 determinants of vocational choice and actual occupation destinations, it is important to understand their origins (Mortimer, Ellen Efron Pimentel, Ryu, Nash, and Lee 1996). However, work values may not be the only driver behind occupational destination. I hypothesize that paternal influence, in the form of status attainment goal setting during ages 8 - 12 years and followed by achievement motivation during ages 13 - 17 years, maintains a heavy influence on occupational destination in the male offspring cohort. Achievement motivation likely drives occupational choice. Achievement motivation has been defined as "the redintegration of affect aroused by cues in situations involving standards of excellence. Such standards are typically learned from parents who urge the child to compete against these standards, rewarding him when he performs well and punishing him when he fails." (Rosen 1961) Of course, competition is a key component of athletic involvement. I expect to find that different levels and forms of achievement motivation during the teen years have varying effects on positive outcomes in the male offspring cohort. No change is more visible during adolescence than physical growth and development. Athletic prowess is fundamentally enhanced in most sports by strength and fitness. During the crucial decision making period of adolescence, achievement motivation could make or break a father/son relationship. The father may push athletic development, like weight lifting, too rigorously and alienate the son. Conversely, the father may motivate passively creating the son's perception that the father is uninterested. This study will examine the December 15, 2009 6 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 influence of paternal relationships on the development of athletic male offspring by studying those sons who are either professional athletes, were former professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming professional athletes. LITERATURE REVIEW Research has been performed that analyzes fatherly influence on occupational choice, socioeconomic achievement, and child development in general. Additional research is needed to examine positive outcomes in the development of sons through their relationships with and influences of their fathers. Specific studies can lend new perspectives. I propose to analyze the relationships of fathers and sons and how the fatherly influence affects goal setting and attainment within the scope of athletics, including aspirations to professional athleticism. Previous research has proposed many theoretical perspectives about why father involvement could have positive consequences for child development. Four of those perspectives are: attachment theory, social capital theory, Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory, and 'essential father' theory (Pleck 2007). I will critique the Essential Father Theory through an analysis of the father/son relationship. This critique will focus on goal setting and attainment. Status Attainment During the past 50 years of sociological study, two established traditions of research on jobs and occupations have been significant. One tradition is represented by stratification studies of status attainment (Hauser, Tsai, and Sewell 1983; Warren et al. 2002). A central feature of attainment research is the December 15, 2009 7 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 scientific force with which it has identified and given structure to the major dimensions of social origins that precede the transition to adulthood and that shape adult socioeconomic achievement (Halaby 2003). The second tradition consists of studies, mostly in the social psychology of work (Johnson 2002; Kohn and Schooler 1969; Mortimer et al. 1996), of individual beliefs about the properties that make a job desirable. This study will closely examine the formation of status attainment goals and the influences during the period that precedes the transition to adulthood. The presumption is that status attainment goals are formed generally early on, before a specific vocation has been chosen (by the son). This study will provide an analysis of status attainment goal formation during the period the sons were ages 8 - 12 years old. Achievement Motivation After status attainment goals have been formed, performance measures can begin to develop. The well-known Wisconsin model of achievement posits that the influence of socioeconomic origins on educational, occupational, and economic attainment is largely mediated by academic performance, social influences and aspirations in secondary schooling (Hauser et al. 1983). This study will explain the transition from status attainment goal formation periods to aspirational performance goals. Specific performance goals are driven by achievement motivation. The presumption is that distinct vocations have been envisioned sometime during the period of 13 - 17 years of age. However, it can be stated with confidence that December 15, 2009 8 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 clear-cut lifelong vocations are not typically solidified at this age. Rather, there is heavy influence on the clarifying of occupational goals during this time. Socioeconomic Background of the Father The socioeconomic background of the father plays a major part in the development of adult intellectual, occupational, and economic outcomes. "Social class is consistently related to men's values - both their values for themselves and those for their children - and to their orientation to work, society, and self. Basic to all these class relationships is the distinction between self-direction and conformity to external authority, the former more highly valued by men of higher social class position, the latter by men of lower social class position." (Kohn and Schooler 1969) For purposes of this research, self-direction and conformity to external authority will be examined and some thought will be given to the claims of Kohn and Schooler in regard to social class position. The research may support the fact that social class is related to men's values - both their values for themselves and those for their children. The subject matter of this research, aspiration to professional athletics, can be said to involve all three elements of orientation that Kohn and Schooler present: work, society, and self. Essential Father Involvement The essential father theory simply states that fathers are essential to positive child development. Some research suggests that responsible fathering is most likely to occur within the context of heterosexual marriage (Silverstein and Auerbach 1999). This research does not seek to discover the rates of essential fathers in heterosexual versus homosexual marriages. Although this December 15, 2009 9 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 perspective is generating a range of governmental initiatives designed to provide social support preferences to fathers over mothers and to heterosexual married couples over alternative family forms, it is the goal of this research to discuss the role of any father in the relationship with his son. I propose that the essential father theory is a valid interpretation of empirical research when applied to a particular group: sons who have obtained the rank of or are on track to become professional athletes. Using a wide range of cross-generational, cross-cultural, and social science research, I will argue that fathers are essential to child development through goal setting and achievement motivation. Furthermore, this study will demonstrate that participatory fathering can contribute to a greater likelihood of successful professionally athletic sons who have reached goals defined by both the sons (self-directed) and their fathers (external authority). The research will summarize indicators of fathering characteristics that correspond with successful athletic outcomes. The conclusion will offer findings for application. METHODS Sample Interviews will be conducted with sons who are either professional athletes, were former professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming professional athletes. The sample is limited to those willing to participate in the research and every effort will be made include a diverse group. Interviews will be held with an assorted group of individuals consisting of participants differing in race, geographic location, age, and athletic status (professional or amateur). December 15, 2009 10 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 Interviews Previous interviews have been conducted across a wide occupational spectrum. I will cover some of those interviews below and explain how each will help form the interview questions used during the research for this proposal. All of these interviews involve popular and famous subjects. This is in congruence with the research proposed because professional sports in America are very popular and success in professional athletics typically goes hand in hand with fame. Country Music - Father Did Not Provide Specific Tools for Success Brad Paisley is a successful American country music performer. His father was mentioned in an interview in People Magazine (2009). "Of all the things Brad Paisley has learned from his dad, singing and playing guitar are not among them. Doug Paisley has a deep devotion to family, which he instilled in Brad." (Bartolomeo and West 2009) In Paisley's case, his father was not a famous country singer and his father did not teach him the skills necessary to become a proficient musician. This interview contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 1: What specific skills, if any, did your father teach you that were outside the scope of athletics? Pop Music - Father Provided Beneficial Tools Outside Scope of Profession Michael Jackson, American pop singer, is often cited as having one of the most intense professionally driven childhoods. Jackson's father Joe is widely known as driving his five sons (and two daughters) into show business with December 15, 2009 11 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 ruthless motivation. Says Jackson, "You probably weren't surprised to hear that I did not have an idyllic childhood. The strain and tension that exists in my relationship with my own father is well documented. My father is a tough man and he pushed my brothers and me hard, from the earliest age, to be the best performers we could be. He had great difficulty showing affection. He never really told me he loved me. And he never really complimented me either. If I did a great show, he would tell me it was a good show. And if I did an OK show, he told me it was a lousy show. He seemed intent, above all else, on making us a commercial success. And at that he was more than adept. My father was a managerial genius and my brothers and I owe our professional success, in no small measure, to the forceful way that he pushed us. He trained me as a showman and under his guidance I couldn't miss a step." (Curry 2009) This interview contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 2: Do you feel that those (non-athletic) skills were beneficial to you in your professional development? How so? Politics - Friendly Relationships and the Results of Friendly Conversations Family relationships are vital in politics. The same might be said for professional sports. For example, the son of an athlete may have preference in being admitted to a college the father attended or being drafted by a team owner who once employed the father. American politics can show the importance of friendships within families and how a father/son friendship might benefit the son later on in professional life. Ted Kennedy Jr., in a eulogy for his father, stated: December 15, 2009 12 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 "I'm simply compelled to remember Ted Kennedy as my father and my best friend. Here's one you may not know: Out of Harvard he was a Green Bay Packers recruit but decided to go to law school instead." (Kennedy 2009) As a friend, Ted Kennedy Sr. may have had a unique influence on his son's occupational decision (Kennedy Jr. is now an investment banker, lawyer, and entrepreneur). This friendly relationship may have led to father/son discussions about career choices, like that between a life pursuing professional sports versus becoming a lawyer. Kennedy’s description of his father contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 3: Did you and your father ever have friendly conversations about career choices? If so, did you talk about professional sports as an option and what were some of the other occupations that your father may have suggested as possibilities? The previous three questions refer to relationships in which the father was predominantly present. The following political father/son relationships show how fathers can have influence on sons when the father is less present. Politics - Absent Fathers' Contributions in Terms of Introducing Others of Influence A large number of presidents have come from essentially fatherless families, or they have had very strong, powerful relationships with their fathers (Meacham 2008a). John McCain, former American presidential candidate, was asked during an interview, "How important was the relationship with your dad to making you the kind of man you are right now?" McCain replied, "[My father] December 15, 2009 13 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 was absent a lot - World War II, Korean War, when he was assigned sea duty, even in peacetime. He was gone a great deal. My mother did a good job of keeping him alive for us - your father this, your father that. She was very good at reminding us of him and of his example. And of course when he was home, not only did I get to know him but his fellow naval officers." (Meacham 2008a) This interview contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 4: When your father was absent, who do you feel influenced you the most and how? When your father did come around, did the two of you have one-on-one conversations or did your father come by with others? In both situations, what sort of influence did your father have on you (solo and those others)? Politics - Absent Fathers' Contributions in Terms of Participatory Influence Currently, President Obama serves as a role model for many young black youth. This is similar to his role models growing up. Obama's father was not present and so he had to gain influence from the situation as opposed to direct interaction. "When Obama was a toddler, his father had declined a scholarship to New York University that would have supported the whole family in order to go to Harvard. The Ivy League was, it seems, more important to the ambitious Obama Sr. than his wife and child." (Meacham 2008b) This fact contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 5: Was your father ambitious? What were your father's aspirations? Do you feel that those dreams influenced what you sought to December 15, 2009 14 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 become? Organized Crime - The Son's Desire (or lack thereof) to Form Bond with Father Often, sons will develop their own motivation even though they may have spent very little time with their fathers directly. It is this indirect and conceptual influence that is apparent in the description given by the son of Mafia Boss "Big Tony." "The truth is that I've often cast myself in relation to my father, even recognizing him as a kindred spirit whose story, if I'm being honest, I've sometimes traded on for personal gain: to impress college coeds, admissions officers, professors, and even prospective employers with what I've had to overcome. His story has also given me a strong sense of direction. Then again, I'm also ashamed of my colorful past, and angry that a comfortable life slipped from my fingers." (Dokoupil 2009) This fact contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 6: Outside of sports, and aside from any of the direct conversations you've had with your father, can you explain how your father has influenced your sense of direction, sense of purpose, or any other subtle gains that your father may have brought to your life? Amateur Sports - Direct Influence in the Form of Lessons Writer Molly Lyons, although she never became or aspired to become a professional athlete, describes how her dad taught her the game of golf. "My dad's lessons were comprehensive: how to grip the club, how to line up a shot, how to stand, where to put your weight, how to turn your hips, how to bring your arms back, how to keep your head down, how to do it all in reverse and not December 15, 2009 15 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 forget to follow through, how to let the club do the work, how to use the strength of your core, how to relax, why not to sway, how to stay coiled, how to keep your eye on the ball, how not to lift your head until you've swung through. Oh, and how to do all of this at the same time, every time, until you've hit about 100 balls. And yet instead of getting frustrated, I got hooked. My dad was a gentle and earnest teacher; I felt terrible that I wasn't always able to execute what he so clearly wanted to do himself." (Lyons 2009) The lessons here were both specific but also relaxed. These facts contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 7: When you were a teenager, did your dad teach you how to play? If so, how did he teach you? Where were the lessons held? Was he rigorous in his approach? Organized Crime - The Son's Desire (or lack thereof) to Repeat Acts of Father No matter how successful the father or son became in life, influence can be assessed as "good" or "bad" (effective/ineffective) by whether or not the son will use the styles of the father with the next generation. The son of Mafia Boss "Big Tony" explains, "As an adult, I've tried to erase the darker aspects of my double helix. I've married a woman far classier than myself, and with a little luck, my son will get all the things I lost too soon: the nice house, the exotic vacations, the great school, a decent dad with a moral compass. When he gets older, I'll tell him about his grandfather, although I doubt they will ever meet. When I told Big Tony that he would soon have a grandson, he was of course overjoyed. Were we thinking of calling him Anthony, he asked. "No, Dad," I said. "I don't think so." December 15, 2009 16 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 (Dokoupil 2009) The preceding questions have all discussed the role of the father during the relationship. The final interview question for this research will examine the perpetuity of the father's influence. This interview contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this research. QUESTION 8: Would you have done anything differently than your dad as far as raising you to achieve your own ambitions? Would you use the same tactics on your son to help him obtain his goals in life? Content Analysis The bulk of the research for this project will be through interviews with the sons. These interviews will provide an excellent summary of how the athlete holds an internal perception of his father's influence on goal setting and attainment. In addition to the data obtained through direct interview, I propose that it is appropriate and valuable to examine similar data presented in the mass media. I will examine mass media content in an effort to find answers to the proposed interview questions. This additional data will provide an alternative approach to data origin. Whenever possible, such data will be taken from interviews similar to those questions proposed in the primary research. At other times, answers to the questions may be presented subtly in commentary. CONCLUSION By applying Essential Father Theory to male offspring who have obtained the rank of or are on track to become professional athletes, this proposal seeks to explain outcomes when varying levels of fatherly influence contribute to the December 15, 2009 17 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 development of their sons. Examining successful outcomes will advance sociological research on the subjects of occupation and health. This study will emphasize that fathers are essential to positive child development by helping (a) set status attainment goals from ages 8 - 12 years; and (b) provide achievement motivation from ages 13 - 17 years. In addition to those developmental periods, I will take a closer look at the influence that fathers' socioeconomic backgrounds play throughout both periods. Interviews will be conducted with sons who are either professional athletes, were former professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming professional athletes. Media content analysis will be conducted regarding athletes' descriptions of fatherly influence when the subject matter is similarly related to that of the research interview questions. Combining both methods will lead to better understanding of paternal influence on the development of athletic children. The essential father theory is a valid interpretation of empirical research when applied to this particular group: male offspring who have obtained the rank of or are on track to become professional athletes. Using a wide range of social science research, an argument will be made as to how fathers are essential to child development through goal setting and achievement motivation. Furthermore, this study will show how participatory fathering can contribute to a greater likelihood of successful professionally athletic sons who have reached goals defined by both the sons (self-directed) and their fathers (external authority). This research is expected to show that fatherly participation is more December 15, 2009 18 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 contributory to the son's athletic advancement than is the level of athletic rank achieved by the father. December 15, 2009 19 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 APPENDIX A List of Interview Questions The following questions relate to status attainment goals formed between ages 8 - 12 years. QUESTION 1: What specific skills, if any, did your father teach you that were outside the scope of athletics? 1A - Did those skills relate to any goals that were expressed before you were a teenager? 1B - Were there any (other) goals for you that your father expressed between ages 8 - 12 years? If so, what were they? QUESTION 2: Do you feel that those (non-athletic) skills were beneficial to you in your professional development? How so? 2A - Were there any non-athletic goals that your father set for you, professionally or otherwise? 2B - What level of professional success did your father expect from you, athletically or otherwise? QUESTION 3: Did you and your father ever have friendly conversations about career choices? 3A - Did you talk about professional sports as an option for your adult career choice? 3B - What were some of the other occupations that your father may have suggested as possibilities? QUESTION 4: When your father was absent, who do you feel influenced you the most and how? 4A - When your father was present, did the two of you have one-on-one conversations about your life goals or did your father come by with others? 4B - In either, presence and/or absence, what sort of influence did your father have on your early career goals (himself and those he associated with)? December 15, 2009 20 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 APPENDIX B List of Interview Questions The following questions relate to achievement motivation occurring between ages 13 - 17 years. QUESTION 5: Was your father ambitious? 5A - What were your father's aspirations? 5B - Do you feel that those dreams influenced what you sought to become? QUESTION 6: Outside of sports, and aside from any of the direct conversations you've had with your father, can you explain how your father has influenced your sense of direction, sense of purpose, or any other subtle gains that your father may have brought to your life? 6A - In general, how did your father motivate you? 6B - In general, what did your father expect you to achieve professionally? QUESTION 7: When you were a teenager, did your dad teach you how to play? If so, how did he teach you? Where were the lessons held? 7A - During lessons about sport play, was your father rigorous or laissez-faire in his approach? 7B - Was your dad more often (i) pleased when you succeeded, or (ii) upset when you failed? QUESTION 8: Would you have done anything differently than your dad as far as raising you to achieve your own ambitions? 8A - Would you use the same tactics on your son to help him obtain his goals in life? 8B - Describe what you believe to be the most effective means of motivation to produce achievement. 8C - Did your father carry out what you just described during your teen years? December 15, 2009 21 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 APPENDIX C List of Interview Questions The following questions relate to the father's socioeconomic background as it was between ages 8 - 17 years. QUESTION 9: Please rank the following in order of how your father valued these things, from highest to lowest value. (i) scholastic achievement (ii) choosing the right career (iii) financial success (iv) making correct decisions on your own (v) respecting your father QUESTION 10: Please mark yes/no for all of the following. i. You achieved your father's goals for you professionally. ii. You achieved your father's goals for you athletically. iii. You achieved your own goals for yourself professionally. iv. You achieved your own goals for yourself athletically. v. You view yourself as successful. vi. Your father views you as a success. vii. Society views you as a success. viii. You view your father as successful. ix. Your father views himself as a success. x. Society views your father as a success. December 15, 2009 22 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartolomeo, J., & West, K. (2009). Country Stars and their Families. People, 30. Curry, G. (2009, August 13). Another Side Of The Maligned Joe Jackson. Sun Reporter, 6. Dokoupil, T. (2009). My Father The Dope Dealer. Newsweek, 154(7). Halaby, C. N. (2003). Where Job Values Come from: Family and Schooling Background, Cognitive Ability, and Gender. American Sociological Review, 68(2), 251-278. Hauser, R. M., Tsai, S., & Sewell, W. H. (1983). A Model of Stratification with Response Error in Social and Psychological Variables. Sociology of Education, 56(1), 2046. Johnson, M. K. (2002). Social Origins, Adolescent Experiences, and Work Value Trajectories during the Transition to Adulthood. Social Forces, 80(4), 1307-1340. Kennedy, T. (2009). There's Nothing You Can't Do. Irish America, 24(5), 32. Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1969). Class, Occupation, and Orientation. American Sociological Review, 34(5), 659-678. Lyons, M. (2009). Learning From A Pro. Self, 31(6), 38. Meacham, J. (2008a). A Son's Measure of His Father. Newsweek, 152(10). Meacham, J. (2008b). On His Own. Newsweek, 152(9). Mortimer, J. T., Pimentel, E. E., Ryu, S., Nash, K., & Lee, C. (1996). Part-Time Work and Occupational Value Formation in Adolescence. Social Forces, 74(4), 14051418. Pleck, J. H. (2007). Why Could Father Involvement Benefit Children? Theoretical Perspectives. Applied Developmental Science, 11(4), 196-202. Rosen, B. C. (1961). Family Structure and Achievement Motivation. American Sociological Review, 26(4), 574-585. December 15, 2009 23 John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820 Scarr, S., & Weinberg, R. A. (1978). The Influence of "Family Background" on Intellectual Attainment. American Sociological Review, 43(5), 674-692. Silverstein, L. B., & Auerbach, C. F. (1999). Deconstructing the essential father. American Psychologist. 54(6), 397-407. Teachman, J. D. (1987). Family Background, Educational Resources, and Educational Attainment. American Sociological Review, 52(4), 548-557. Warren, J. R., Sheridan, J. T., & Hauser, R. M. (2002). Occupational Stratification across the Life Course: Evidence from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. American Sociological Review, 67(3), 432-455. December 15, 2009 24